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Lots of MD linter warnings fixed

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    README.md
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    ## What is an Open Lab?
    The idea of an Open Lab comes from the [Fablab](https://www.fablabs.io/) which is an openly accessible fabrication workshop with various propriertery machinery such as 3D printers, laser cutters and CNC mills. These propriertary machines listed on the [Fablab Inventory List](https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/u/0/d/1U-jcBWOJEjBT5A0N84IUubtcHKMEMtndQPLCkZCkVsU/pub?single=true&gid=0&output=html) which is an exhaustive list of machinery that can be bought and installed to setup up a fablab locally. These proprietary machines are relatively expensive and propietary and shipping from the US to lesser developed countries can be prohibitively expensive. Lastly propiertary machines can never really be owned and users are locked within the company ecosystem. So an Open Lab is basically a fab lab with open source hardware machinery instead of proprietary machinery.
    The idea of an Open Lab comes from the [Fablab](https://www.fablabs.io/)
    which is an openly accessible fabrication workshop
    with various propriertery machinery such as 3D printers, laser cutters and CNC mills.
    These propriertary machines listed on the [Fablab Inventory List](https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/u/0/d/1U-jcBWOJEjBT5A0N84IUubtcHKMEMtndQPLCkZCkVsU/pub?single=true&gid=0&output=html)
    which is an exhaustive list of machinery
    that can be bought and installed to setup up a fablab locally.
    These proprietary machines are relatively expensive and propietary,
    and shipping from the US to lesser developed countries can be prohibitively expensive.
    Lastly, propiertary machines can never really be owned
    and users are locked within the company ecosystem.
    So, an Open Lab is basically a fab lab with open source hardware machinery
    instead of proprietary machinery.
    ## What is the Open Lab Starter Kit?
    The Open Lab Starter Kit aims to create An Open Source Hardware Repository for low marginal cost replication of Open Source Machine tools. These machine tools will be fully open source and can be fabricated to a large extent locally. The Bill of Materials (BOM), CAD models and a detailed and intuitive build instruction will accompany each design. Open source also means that the community can collaborate while suggesting changes and improvements.
    The Open Lab Starter Kit aims to create An Open Source Hardware Repository
    for low marginal cost replication of Open Source Machine tools.
    These machine tools will be fully open source
    and can be fabricated to a large extent locally.
    The Bill of Materials (BOM), CAD models
    and a detailed and intuitive build instruction will accompany each design.
    Open source also means,
    that the community can collaborate by suggesting changes and improvements.
    ## Open Lab Machines
    The preliminary list of machines that will be built in the open lab starter kit are as follows:
    The preliminary list of machines that will be built
    in the Open Lab Starter Kit are as follows:
    1. Desktop 3D Printer – min (20x20x25 cm) – max (40x40x40 cm)
    2. Desktop CNC Mill also Small PCB Mill - min (20x20x10 cm) – max (600x400x100 mm)
    ......@@ -21,15 +40,22 @@ The preliminary list of machines that will be built in the open lab starter kit
    5. Large Format CNC Router – Size: 2500 x 1250 x 300 mm
    6. Large Laser cutter – 1000 x 700 mm
    7. Vinyl Cutter – A3 format
    ---
    _Optional or Future Work_
    ## _Optional or Future Work_
    1. 3D Scanner
    2. (Plasma Cutter) / Waterjet Cutter / metal cutter
    3. Pick and Place Machine
    4. Heavy Duty CNC Milling Machine
    5. Sewing Machine (For Textiles)
    6. CNC Lathe
    7. SLS Printer (Plastic / Metal)
    3. Pick and Place Machine
    4. Heavy Duty CNC Milling Machine
    5. Sewing Machine (For Textiles)
    6. CNC Lathe
    7. SLS Printer (Plastic / Metal)
    ---
    The documentation on this repository is licensed under the terms of the open source license: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International ([CC BY-SA 4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/)).
    The documentation on this repository
    is licensed under the terms of the open source license:
    Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International
    ([CC BY-SA 4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/)).
    docs/CE_Certification/Information.md
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    ## 6 Steps for CE certification
    1. Identify which directives are applicable for each module: Not all products required to be CE certified so we need to check each of our modules to fall in at least one CE marking directive. If not, no CE marking is needed.
    2. Identify the applicable requirements of the applicable directives: Each directive has it’s own methods of demonstrating conformity. This usually depends on the classification of the product and its intended use.
    3. Every directive has a number of essential requirements which the product has to meet.
    4. Identify the route to conformity: The CE marking process is always a self-declaration process however it can be required to involve a third party. This is described in the “system of attestation” and will vary between directives.
    5. Assessment of the product’s conformity: When all the requirements have been met, you need evidence that the product meets the essential requirements of the directive(s)
    6. Compile the technical documentation: This information should cover every aspect relating to conformity and should include design, development and manufacture of the product.
    7. Make a declaration and affix the CE mark: When the product satisfies the applicable CE marking directives as they must complete a declaration.
    [Source, Last accessed 25/08/2021](https://www.openmotics.com/en/how-to-make-open-source-hardware-products-ce-certified/)
    When there is no CE marking directive, then the [General Product Safety Directive](https://ec.europa.eu/info/business-economy-euro/product-safety-and-requirements/product-safety/consumer-product-safety_en) applies.
    ----
    1. Identify which directives are applicable for each module:
    Not all products required to be CE certified
    so we need to check each of our modules
    to fall in at least one CE marking directive.
    If not, no CE marking is needed.
    2. Identify the applicable requirements of the applicable directives:
    Each directive has it’s own methods of demonstrating conformity.
    This usually depends on the classification of the product and its intended use.
    3. Every directive has a number of essential requirements
    which the product has to meet.
    4. Identify the route to conformity:
    The CE marking process is always a self-declaration process,
    however it can be required to involve a third party.
    This is described in the “system of attestation” and will vary between directives.
    5. Assessment of the product’s conformity:
    When all the requirements have been met,
    you need evidence that the product meets the essential requirements of the directive(s)
    6. Compile the technical documentation:
    This information should cover every aspect relating to conformity
    and should include design, development and manufacture of the product.
    7. Make a declaration and affix the CE mark:
    When the product satisfies the applicable CE marking directives
    as they must complete a declaration.
    [Source, Last accessed 25/08/2021](https://www.openmotics.com/en/how-to-make-open-source-hardware-products-ce-certified/)
    When there is no CE marking directive,
    then the [General Product Safety Directive](https://ec.europa.eu/info/business-economy-euro/product-safety-and-requirements/product-safety/consumer-product-safety_en)
    applies.
    ---
    Further Points to elaborate:
    1. Points to consider for the general product safety directive during design phase
    2. Check which machine directives to consider for the various machines - Possible further info available in the thesis done by Tobias's student
    3. Divide the points in the various categories such as mechanics and drive, user safety features, electronics etc.
    4. Make guidelines for the design to be considered so that the machines can be CE certified without further steps.
    2. Check which machine directives to consider for the various machines -
    Possible further info available in the thesis done by Tobias's student
    3. Divide the points in the various categories
    such as mechanics and drive, user safety features, electronics etc.
    4. Make guidelines for the design to be considered
    so that the machines can be CE certified without further steps.
    docs/electronics/Controller.md
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    docs/electronics/Heated_Bed.md
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    ## Introduction
    Heat beds are used because they dramatically improve print quality by keeping the extruded plastic warm and thus preventing warping. Heat beds work to prevent this warping effect by keeping your part warm during the whole printing process which keeps the material at or above heat-deflection temperature (the temperature at which it is malleable). Keeping the parts in the heat-deflection range ensures that the part remains flat on the print bed.
    Heat beds are used because they dramatically improve print quality
    by keeping the extruded plastic warm and thus preventing warping.
    Heat beds work to prevent this warping effect
    by keeping your part warm during the whole printing process
    which keeps the material at or above heat-deflection temperature
    (the temperature at which it is malleable).
    Keeping the parts in the heat-deflection range
    ensures that the part remains flat on the print bed.
    ## Types of Heat Bed
    Heated beds usually yield higher quality finished builds with materials such as ABS and PLA. Regardless of the heat bed you are using, you should generally use these temperatures (heat deflection points) for [PLA and ABS](http://bootsindustries.com/heat-bed-3d-printing/):
    Heated beds usually yield higher quality finished builds
    with materials such as ABS and PLA.
    Regardless of the heat bed you are using,
    you should generally use these temperatures (heat deflection points)
    for [PLA and ABS](http://bootsindustries.com/heat-bed-3d-printing/):
    1. For PLA 50-60°C
    2. For ABS 100-110°C
    1. For PLA 50-60°C
    2. For ABS 100-110°C
    ### Heated Beds Using PCBs as Heating Element
    [We recommend the PCB heat bed]( http://bootsindustries.com/heat-bed-3d-printing/) as the heating elements. These are available with the budget 3D printers. However, these won’t last long if your 3D printing projects are complex and require frequent jobs with 3D printers. In short, they are meant for smaller projects that do not take much longer to complete.
    [We recommend the PCB heat bed](http://bootsindustries.com/heat-bed-3d-printing/)
    as the heating elements.
    These are available with the budget 3D printers.
    However, these won’t last long if your 3D printing projects are complex
    and require frequent jobs with 3D printers.
    In short, they are meant for smaller projects that do not take much longer to complete.
    ### Recommended PCB HEAT BED
    The [MK2A heat bed (200mm x 200mm)](https://www.amazon.de/-/en/MK2-a-heated-bed-300-x-200-mm/dp/B01NBEX91J) is a good example of a PCB heat bed. These heat beds are used by many 3D printers due to their great performance and affordability.
    The [MK2A heat bed (200mm x 200mm)](https://www.amazon.de/-/en/MK2-a-heated-bed-300-x-200-mm/dp/B01NBEX91J)
    is a good example of a PCB heat bed.
    These heat beds are used by many 3D printers
    due to their great performance and affordability.
    This particular heat bed has 2 integrated LEDs and an integrated resistor which makes it rather ‘plug and play’ when compared to other solutions.
    This particular heat bed has 2 integrated LEDs and an integrated resistor
    which makes it rather ‘plug and play’ when compared to other solutions.
    #### Electrical Construction
    * There are pads and un-plated through holes for connecting the power wires. Ensure that the wire you use is thick enough for 10A, and solder it to the pads on the track side of the PCB.
    * It is a good idea to think about strain relief so your moving build platform does not flex the joint, this can lead to failure of the joint over time.
    * It is recommended routing the wire from the heated bed to strain relief on the thick sheet before routing it to your controller/power supply.
    * There are pads and un-plated through holes for connecting the power wires.
    Ensure that the wire you use is thick enough for 10A,
    and solder it to the pads on the track side of the PCB.
    * It is a good idea to think about strain relief
    so your moving build platform does not flex the joint,
    this can lead to failure of the joint over time.
    * It is recommended routing the wire from the heated bed
    to strain relief on the thick sheet
    before routing it to your controller/power supply.
    ![Mk2a Through Hole](https://reprap.org/mediawiki/images/1/14/Mk2a_Through_Hole.jpg)
    * The pads to solder onto have been greatly increased as shown in the picture above. The picture shows the wires prepared for soldering routed through the holes for extra security. This does not remove the need to use proper strain relief.
    * The pads to solder onto have been greatly increased as shown in the picture above.
    The picture shows the wires prepared for soldering routed through the holes
    for extra security.
    This does not remove the need to use proper strain relief.
    #### Dual Power version
    [MK3 ALU-Heatbed Dual Power](https://www.robotdigg.com/product/202/MK3-Dual-Power-ALU-Heatbed) have features similar to MK2 and you can also operate this board with 12V or 24V. Running 24V on the 12V terminals will heatup the heatbed to 100 degree in only 2 minutes (Your printer controller will regulate the power to the heatbed in order to get your preset temperature.
    [MK3 ALU-Heatbed Dual Power](https://www.robotdigg.com/product/202/MK3-Dual-Power-ALU-Heatbed)
    have features similar to MK2 and you can also operate this board with 12V or 24V.
    Running 24V on the 12V terminals will heatup the heatbed to 100 degree
    in only 2 minutes
    (Your printer controller will regulate the power to the heatbed
    in order to get your preset temperature.
    When connecting the heatbed in the 12V setting it is important that you connect solder pad 2 and 3 directly on the heatbed
    When connecting the heatbed in the 12V setting
    it is important that you connect solder pad 2 and 3 directly on the heatbed
    ![Alu-Heatbed MK3 12v Setting](https://reprap.org/mediawiki/images/8/8d/Alu_12V_small.jpg)
    ......@@ -43,10 +78,14 @@ When connecting the heatbed in the 12V setting it is important that you connect
    ### Electronics Design
    * To power the bed, you should use a PC PSU or universal power supply that can output at least 10A @ 12V.
    You may be able to get universal laptop-PSUs with adjustable voltage for a range of [15-24V at 80-180W](https://reprap.org/wiki/Heated_Bed#Electronics_Design_.231).
    * The heating elements can be nichrome wire, power resistors for higher temperatures or ready-made, flat heating-pads for lower temperatures.
    * To power the bed, you should use a PC PSU or universal power supply
    that can output at least 10A @ 12V.
    You may be able to get universal laptop-PSUs with adjustable voltage
    for a range of [15-24V at 80-180W](https://reprap.org/wiki/Heated_Bed#Electronics_Design_.231).
    * The heating elements can be nichrome wire,
    power resistors for higher temperatures or ready-made, flat heating-pads
    for lower temperatures.
    * nichrome wire is cheaper and takes less space then power resistors.
    * [This design uses a simple analog control circuit and is easy and cheap to build (20$US for the electronics)](https://reprap.org/wiki/Heated_Bed#Electronics_Design_.232).
    * [This design](https://reprap.org/wiki/Heated_Bed#Electronics_Design_.232)
    uses a simple analog control circuit and is easy and cheap to build
    (20$US for the electronics).
    docs/electronics/Limit_Switch.md
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    ## Introduction
    Limit switches serve as the mechanism that tells the computer the limits of the CNC machine. When one of the axes moves to an axis limit, the switch is activated and the machine stops. These limit switches are also use to inform the computer of the home position.
    Limit switches serve as the mechanism
    that tells the computer the limits of the CNC machine.
    When one of the axes moves to an axis limit,
    the switch is activated and the machine stops.
    These limit switches are also use to inform the computer of the home position.
    The CNC machines use limit switches to eliminate machinery vibrations, false triggers, and electrical interference between the cutting and workpieces.
    The CNC machines use limit switches to eliminate machinery vibrations,
    false triggers, and electrical interference between the cutting and workpieces.
    ### Why limit Switch as End stop
    For a high level of accuracy, you might want to go with an optical or magnetic endstop. However, fixing issues with these endstops could be difficult because they both use methods that are invisible to the eye. If you’re looking for the [cheapest, simplest, and most-developed endstop](https://all3dp.com/2/3d-printer-endstop-switch-optical-endstop/), limit switches might be your best bet.
    For a high level of accuracy, you might want to go with an optical or magnetic endstop.
    However, fixing issues with these endstops could be difficult
    because they both use methods that are invisible to the eye.
    If you're looking for the [cheapest, simplest, and most-developed endstop](https://all3dp.com/2/3d-printer-endstop-switch-optical-endstop/),
    limit switches might be your best bet.
    Limit switches or Mechanical endstops aren’t only used for axis endstops but also as bed-leveling sensors. For example, the popular BLTouch (as well as other proximity bed-leveling sensors) is essentially a mechanical endstop mounted on a hot end carriage.
    Limit switches or Mechanical endstops aren’t only used for axis endstops
    but also as bed-leveling sensors.
    For example, the popular BLTouch (as well as other proximity bed-leveling sensors)
    is essentially a mechanical endstop mounted on a hot end carriage.
    These switches are used a lot in 3D printing, as seen on Creality, MakerBot, Ultimaker, Anycubic, and many other FDM printers. This technology is so commonly used because of its simple yet effective design.
    These switches are used a lot in 3D printing,
    as seen on Creality, MakerBot, Ultimaker, Anycubic, and many other FDM printers.
    This technology is so commonly used because of its simple yet effective design.
    **Specifications :**
    **Specifications:**
    * Price range: $1-6
    * Precision: Medium
    ......@@ -27,7 +41,7 @@ These switches are used a lot in 3D printing, as seen on Creality, MakerBot, Ult
    Limit switches present many essential advantages to their design:
    1. Designs are usually simple and easy
    2. Work well in almost every manufacturing setting
    2. Work well in almost every manufacturing setting
    3. Exhibit high precision and repeatability
    4. Are devices with power consumption
    5. Limit switches are reliable and rugged
    ......@@ -36,56 +50,103 @@ Limit switches present many essential advantages to their design:
    ## Best Limit Switches for CNC
    These were the best limit switches that will ensure smooth functioning of your CNC. Almost all of them work as per the two contact configurations out of which one is NC and one is NO. Apart from this, the limit switch works in the momentary action and makes it the best for CNC devices. These limit switches are functional at 250V, and upto 5A alternating current.
    These were the best limit switches that will ensure smooth functioning of your CNC.
    Almost all of them work as per the two contact configurations
    out of which one is NC and one is NO.
    Apart from this, the limit switch works in the momentary action
    and makes it the best for CNC devices.
    These limit switches are functional at 250V, and upto 5A alternating current.
    Here are the [Best Limit Switches for CNC as far 2021](https://theedgecutter.com/best-cnc-limit-switch/)
    ## Wiring Specifications
    Before starting, make sure your coordinate frame is setup properly on your CNC machine and satisfies the right-hand rule. If you're not sure, its explained in the quick setup guide here. Otherwise, you will likely encounter problems with the homing cycle, where it behaves strangely. If you are having issues with the homing cycle, read this FAQ.
    Before starting, make sure your coordinate frame is setup properly
    on your CNC machine and satisfies the right-hand rule.
    If you're not sure, its explained in the quick setup guide here.
    Otherwise, you will likely encounter problems with the homing cycle,
    where it behaves strangely.
    If you are having issues with the homing cycle, read this FAQ.
    ### There are two types of end switches wiring
    1. **Normally Opened end switches (NO)** - switches are connected in parallel, if the head hits one of the switches the resistance becomes low (<10 Ohm). The wiring is simple but there is no indication if one of the switches is disconnected (broken wire).
    1. **Normally Opened end switches (NO)** - switches are connected in parallel,
    if the head hits one of the switches the resistance becomes low (<10 Ohm).
    The wiring is simple but there is no indication
    if one of the switches is disconnected (broken wire).
    2. **Normally Closed end switches (NC)** - switches are connected in serial, if the head hits one of the switches the resistance become high (> 1 MOhm). The wiring is more complicated but if any of the switches is disconnected (broken wire) this will be immediately detected. This is the way how all professional CNC machines end switches were wired.
    2. **Normally Closed end switches (NC)** - switches are connected in serial,
    if the head hits one of the switches the resistance become high (> 1 MOhm).
    The wiring is more complicated but if any of the switches is disconnected
    (broken wire) this will be immediately detected.
    This is the way how all professional CNC machines end switches were wired.
    ***Normally-Closed (NC) vs Normally-Open (NO) switches***
    #### Normally-Closed (NC) vs Normally-Open (NO) switches
    Use NC switches. Because whenever switches fail, the failure mode is ALWAYS "open" or "fails to make contact". Simple fact of nature, it's just the way things are.
    Use NC switches.
    Because whenever switches fail, the failure mode is ALWAYS "open"
    or "fails to make contact".
    Simple fact of nature, it's just the way things are.
    Assuming a NO switch is used..... While homing in on a defective switch, you will not know that the switch is malfunctioning, not until after you have crashed your machine. If the switch fails to make contact then the machine crashes.
    Assuming a NO switch is used...
    While homing in on a defective switch,
    you will not know that the switch is malfunctioning,
    not until after you have crashed your machine.
    If the switch fails to make contact then the machine crashes.
    Assuming a NC switch is used..... If the switch is bad (in this case the contacts will be open), then no homing occurs, GRBL will return an error and homing does not proceed, and your machine doesn't crash.
    Assuming a NC switch is used...
    If the switch is bad (in this case the contacts will be open),
    then no homing occurs, GRBL will return an error and homing does not proceed,
    and your machine doesn't crash.
    So it does make a BIG difference which switch contact configuration you use for limit switches, NC or NO. Crash or no crash.
    So it does make a BIG difference which switch contact configuration you use
    for limit switches, NC or NO.
    Crash or no crash.
    ### Wire Routing
    #### **limit switches to Microcontroller Based Board**
    #### limit switches to Microcontroller Based Board
    * The easiest way to attach limit switches to Arduino UNO is to just connect the switches to the corresponding pins and to rely on the internal weak pull up resistors (~47K) of the ATMega328 chip.
    * The easiest way to attach limit switches to Arduino UNO
    is to just connect the switches to the corresponding pins
    and to rely on the internal weak pull up resistors (~47K) of the ATMega328 chip.
    * The Normal connected (NC) switch wiring is shown below:
    ![The Normal connected (NC) switch wiring](https://cloud.githubusercontent.com/assets/5912573/22624947/4abbfa48-eb92-11e6-8b16-5fff7d2a6a8f.png)
    * The Normal Open (NO) switch wiring is shown below:
    ![The Normal Open (NO) switch wiring](https://cloud.githubusercontent.com/assets/5912573/22624880/1b605600-eb91-11e6-9a87-54a98b1cb38c.png)
    ***One improvement is to connect 1K to 4.7K pull up resistors to 5V and 100nF capacitors to GND. The extra pull ups and capacitors have noticeable noise suppression effect over the GRBL performance.***
    ***One improvement is to connect 1K to 4.7K pull up resistors
    to 5V and 100nF capacitors to GND.
    The extra pull ups and capacitors have noticeable noise suppression effect
    over the GRBL performance.***
    * ![Improved Noise Filtering](https://cloud.githubusercontent.com/assets/5912573/22625452/1671414a-eba0-11e6-9fb1-648a82bd19bf.png)
    ### [Capacitors for noise filtering](https://github.com/gnea/grbl/wiki/Wiring-Limit-Switches#capacitors-for-noise-filtering)
    Even if you do use NC contacts, you still need those **104 (0.1uF) capacitors**, as close to the Arduino as you can place them. You can argue all day that those caps won't make a difference since the caps are shorted out by the switches.
    Even if you do use NC contacts,
    you still need those **104 (0.1uF) capacitors**,
    as close to the Arduino as you can place them.
    You can argue all day that those caps won't make a difference
    since the caps are shorted out by the switches.
    The explanation for this phenomenon is quite long but the first power line glitch will convince you otherwise. (Plug in your blender next to the CNC's AC plug and turn it on. Your CNC should still behave normally despite the blender.)
    The explanation for this phenomenon is quite long
    but the first power line glitch will convince you otherwise.
    (Plug in your blender next to the CNC's AC plug and turn it on.
    Your CNC should still behave normally despite the blender.)
    * Side benefit: With NC switches, the connection is broken cleanly when you hit home position, therefore no contact bounce occurs. (Contact bounce occurs only during switch closure, NOT during switch opening.)
    * Side benefit:
    With NC switches, the connection is broken cleanly when you hit home position,
    therefore no contact bounce occurs.
    (Contact bounce occurs only during switch closure, NOT during switch opening.)
    #### **limit switches to Prallel Breakout Board:**
    #### Limit switches to Prallel Breakout Board
    Here is the diagram for the parallel breakout board
    (pins 10 through 13 are used for input):
    Here is the diagram for the parallel breakout board (pins 10 through 13 are used for input):
    ![Suggested Wiring for parallel Breakout Board](https://www.buildyourcnc.com/images/breakout%20suggested%20diagram.jpg)
    This following link will give you a certain idea of [Parallel connection diagram of limit switches using 1 to 6 input ports.](https://drufelcnc.com/?c=blog&p=LimitSwitches)
    This following link will give you a certain idea of
    [Parallel connection diagram of limit switches using 1 to 6 input ports.](https://drufelcnc.com/?c=blog&p=LimitSwitches)
    docs/electronics/Motors.md
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    # Motors for Motion Control Applications
    Choosing the right motor is critical for the efficiency and productivity of the motion control applications. It can be difficult to choose between servo motors and stepper motors as there are so many considerations: cost, torque, efficiency, speed, circuitry and more.
    Choosing the right motor is critical for the efficiency and productivity
    of the motion control applications.
    It can be difficult to choose between servo motors and stepper motors
    as there are so many considerations:
    cost, torque, efficiency, speed, circuitry and more.
    ## Differences in Servo Motors and Stepper Motors for Motion Control Applications:
    - The main difference between these motors comes from the overall pole count. Stepper motors have a high pole count, usually between 50 and 100. Servo motors have a low pole count – between 4 and 12.
    - The main difference between these motors comes from the overall pole count.
    Stepper motors have a high pole count, usually between 50 and 100.
    Servo motors have a low pole count – between 4 and 12.
    - This difference in pole count means that stepper motors move incrementally with a consistent pulse in a closed loop system. Servo motors require an encoder to adjust pulses for position control.
    - This difference in pole count means that stepper motors move incrementally
    with a consistent pulse in a closed loop system.
    Servo motors require an encoder to adjust pulses for position control.
    ## Stepper Motors in Motion Control: Pros and Cons
    Pros:
    - Stepper motors, due to their high pole count, offer precision drive control for motion control applications.
    - Stepper motors, due to their high pole count,
    offer precision drive control for motion control applications.
    - They have a high torque at low speeds, and they’re also relatively inexpensive and widely available.
    - They have a high torque at low speeds,
    and they’re also relatively inexpensive and widely available.
    Cons:
    - At high-speeds, stepper motors lose nearly all of their torque, sometimes up to 80%.
    - At high-speeds, stepper motors lose nearly all of their torque,
    sometimes up to 80%.
    - They produce high vibrations levels and are prone to resonance issues.
    - Stepper motors also produce high amounts of heat, which can be an issue in certain applications.
    - Stepper motors also produce high amounts of heat,
    which can be an issue in certain applications.
    ## Servo Motors in Motion Control: Pros and Cons
    Pros:
    - The main benefit of servo motors is they provide high levels of torque at high speed – something stepper motors can’t do.
    - The main benefit of servo motors
    is they provide high levels of torque at high speed –
    something stepper motors can’t do.
    - They also operate at 80 – 90% efficiency.
    - Servo motors can work in AC or DC drive, and do not suffer from vibration or resonance issues.
    - Servo motors can work in AC or DC drive,
    and do not suffer from vibration or resonance issues.
    Cons:
    - Servo motors are more expensive than stepper motors. Add in the cost of an encoder, and often a gearbox, and the whole system can become quite costly.
    - Servo motors are more expensive than stepper motors.
    Add in the cost of an encoder, and often a gearbox,
    and the whole system can become quite costly.
    - The need for an encoder and gearbox makes the system more mechanically complex, leading to more frequent maintenance and higher costs.
    - The need for an encoder and gearbox makes the system more mechanically complex,
    leading to more frequent maintenance and higher costs.
    ## Key Questions of Stepper Motors
    A stepper motor can be a good choice whenever controlled movement is required. They can be used in applications where we need to control rotation angle, speed, position and synchronism. Because of the inherent advantages listed previously, stepper motors have found their place in many different applications. Some of these include printers, plotters, X-Y tables, laser cutters, engraving machines, pick-place devices and so on.
    A stepper motor can be a good choice whenever controlled movement is required.
    They can be used in applications
    where we need to control rotation angle, speed, position and synchronism.
    Because of the inherent advantages listed previously,
    stepper motors have found their place in many different applications.
    Some of these include printers, plotters, X-Y tables, laser cutters,
    engraving machines, pick-place devices and so on.
    ### How to Choose Steppers Motors for DIY CNC machines?
    Choosing a stepper very much depends on the type of machine we have or are going to build and the material we are going to cut. When selecting a stepper motor for our application, there are several factors that need to be taken into consideration:
    Choosing a stepper very much depends on the type of machine we have
    or are going to build and the material we are going to cut.
    When selecting a stepper motor for our application,
    there are several factors that need to be taken into consideration:
    - How will the motor be coupled to the load?
    - How fast does the load need to move or accelerate?
    - How much torque is required to move the load?
    - What degree of accuracy is required when positioning the load?
    The most technical ways of choosing the stepper motors are mentioned in [Motor Sizing](https://www.orientalmotor.com/technology/motor-sizing-calculations.html). This repository contains the simplest way to choose a stepper motor for the DIY CNC machines. More details can be found in [Stepper Motors and Controllers](https://rckeith.co.uk/how-to-choose-steppers-motors-and-controllers-for-diy-cnc-machines/). Let's start with understanding the **NEMA** standard.
    The most technical ways of choosing the stepper motors
    are mentioned in [Motor Sizing](https://www.orientalmotor.com/technology/motor-sizing-calculations.html).
    This repository contains the simplest way
    to choose a stepper motor for the DIY CNC machines.
    More details can be found in [Stepper Motors and Controllers](https://rckeith.co.uk/how-to-choose-steppers-motors-and-controllers-for-diy-cnc-machines/).
    Let's start with understanding the **NEMA** standard.
    #### Nema Standard
    #### Nema Standard
    - NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association) is a standard that defines the size of the faceplate of the motor.
    - NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association)
    is a standard that defines the size of the faceplate of the motor.
    - Two of the most popular sizes for DIY machines are NEMA17 (1.7 in x 1.7 in) and NEMA23 (2.3 in x 2.3 in).
    - Two of the most popular sizes for DIY machines
    are NEMA17 (1.7 in x 1.7 in) and NEMA23 (2.3 in x 2.3 in).
    ### How to Understand the Stepper Motor Specifications?
    ......@@ -67,43 +101,70 @@ The most technical ways of choosing the stepper motors are mentioned in [Motor S
    - This is the maximum current we may pass through both windings at the same time.
    - The maximum current through one winding (which is what really matters when using microstepping) is rarely quoted and will be a little higher.
    - The maximum current through one winding
    (which is what really matters when using microstepping)
    is rarely quoted and will be a little higher.
    - However, even with one winding driven at the quoted rated current, the motor will get very hot.
    - However, even with one winding driven at the quoted rated current,
    the motor will get very hot.
    - The usual practice is to set the motor current to no more than about 85% of the rated current.
    - The usual practice is to set the motor current
    to no more than about 85% of the rated current.
    - Therefore, to get maximum torque out of the stepper motors without overheating them, we should choose motors with a current rating no more than 25% higher than the recommended maximum stepper driver current.
    - Therefore, to get maximum torque out of the stepper motors
    without overheating them, we should choose motors
    with a current rating no more than 25% higher
    than the recommended maximum stepper driver current.
    #### 2) Torque Rating
    - Stepper motors are rated by their holding torque in oz / in (ounces per inch) or N.m (Newton-metre), etc.
    - Stepper motors are rated by their holding torque
    in oz / in (ounces per inch) or N.m (Newton-metre), etc.
    - Holding torque is the maximum torque that the motor can provide with both windings energized at full current before it starts jumping steps.
    - Holding torque is the maximum torque that the motor can provide
    with both windings energized at full current before it starts jumping steps.
    - **Example**: a NEMA23 might say 175 oz / in. So it can hold 175 ounces on an arm of 1 inch in length attached to the motor shaft.
    - **Example**: a NEMA23 might say 175 oz / in.
    So it can hold 175 ounces on an arm of 1 inch in length attached to the motor shaft.
    - We also need to note how much current the motor will draw and the voltage it needs to work at.
    - We also need to note how much current the motor will draw
    and the voltage it needs to work at.
    - The holding torque with one winding energized at the rated current is about ***1 / sqrt(2)*** times that.
    - The holding torque with one winding energized at the rated current
    is about ***1 / sqrt(2)*** times that.
    - The torque is proportional to current (except at very low currents), so for example, if we set the drivers to 85% of the motor rated current, then the maximum torque will be ***85% * 0.707 = 60%*** of the specified holding torque.
    - The torque is proportional to current (except at very low currents),
    so for example, if we set the drivers to 85% of the motor rated current,
    then the maximum torque will be ***85% * 0.707 = 60%***
    of the specified holding torque.
    #### 3) Unipolar / Bipolar
    #### 3) Unipolar / Bipolar
    - Stepper motors can be bipolar or unipolar. This has to do with the way coils are connected. Nearly all motors for hobby CNC machines are sold as bipolar.
    - Stepper motors can be bipolar or unipolar.
    This has to do with the way coils are connected.
    Nearly all motors for hobby CNC machines are sold as bipolar.
    - A bipolar stepper motor has an onboard driver that uses an H bridge circuit to reverse the current flow through the phases. By energizing the phases while alternating the polarity, all the coils can be put to work turning the motor.
    - A bipolar stepper motor has an onboard driver that uses an H bridge circuit
    to reverse the current flow through the phases.
    By energizing the phases while alternating the polarity,
    all the coils can be put to work turning the motor.
    - In practical terms, this means that the coil windings are better utilized in a bipolar than a standard unipolar stepper motor (which only uses 50% of the wire coils at any one time), making bipolar stepper motors more powerful and efficient to run.
    - In practical terms, this means that the coil windings are better utilized
    in a bipolar than a standard unipolar stepper motor
    (which only uses 50% of the wire coils at any one time),
    making bipolar stepper motors more powerful and efficient to run.
    - For the same reason, bipolar motors have a high torque output. To learn more about the wiring, check this [Wiring Configurataion](https://blog.orientalmotor.com/wiring-basics-unipolar-vs-bipolar).
    - For the same reason, bipolar motors have a high torque output.
    To learn more about the wiring, check this [Wiring Configurataion](https://blog.orientalmotor.com/wiring-basics-unipolar-vs-bipolar).
    - However, the motors need more complex circuitry to switch the coils. This isn’t an issue because the driver modules do this for us.
    - However, the motors need more complex circuitry to switch the coils.
    This isn’t an issue because the driver modules do this for us.
    #### 4) Step angle
    - There are two common step angles: 0.9 and 1.8 degrees per full step, corresponding to 400 and 200 steps/revolution.
    - There are two common step angles:
    0.9 and 1.8 degrees per full step, corresponding to 400 and 200 steps/revolution.
    - 0.9 deg motors have slightly lower holding torque than similar 1.8 deg motors from the same manufacturer.
    - 0.9 deg motors have slightly lower holding torque
    than similar 1.8 deg motors from the same manufacturer.
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    # Sensors
    A process monitoring **Sensor** groups, expertise library, and neural network to automatically determine and correct process parameters such as cutting speed, depth and rate. Certainly, intelligent CNC machines also have motion control units that include **position sensors, rotary encoders, proximity switches, current sensors and pressure sensors** to work with process monitoring sensor group and achieve powerful function
    A process monitoring **Sensor** groups, expertise library,
    and neural network to automatically determine and correct process parameters
    such as cutting speed, depth and rate.
    Certainly, intelligent CNC machines also have motion control units
    that include **position sensors, rotary encoders, proximity switches,
    current sensors and pressure sensors**
    to work with process monitoring sensor group and achieve powerful function
    ## list of sensors and actuators can be used in a CNC machine
    ## List of sensors and actuators can be used in a CNC machine
    ### Proximity Sensor
    In the latest CNC machining centers, **Inductive sensors** are the components of choice for monitoring the motor spindle clamping process. Integrated into the spindle, they must be exceptionally small and offer high repeatability to ensure smooth tool changing at all times.
    - One example is the inductive proximity sensor **IFRM 03** with a diameter of only 3 mm. It is available in various lengths starting at a mere 12 mm.
    In the latest CNC machining centers,
    **Inductive sensors** are the components of choice
    for monitoring the motor spindle clamping process.
    Integrated into the spindle,
    they must be exceptionally small and offer high repeatability
    to ensure smooth tool changing at all times.
    - another one is **TL-W3MB1** Inductive Proximity Sensor, TL-W Series, Flat, 3mm, PNP, 10 V to 30 V.
    - One example is the inductive proximity sensor **IFRM 03**
    with a diameter of only 3 mm.
    It is available in various lengths starting at a mere 12 mm.
    For wiring connection exammple, this video shows the physical configuration, wiring, and Mach4 integration of the proximity sensors on my CNC machine.
    - another one is **TL-W3MB1** Inductive Proximity Sensor,
    TL-W Series, Flat, 3mm, PNP, 10 V to 30 V.
    For wiring connection exammple, this video shows the physical configuration,
    wiring, and Mach4 integration of the proximity sensors on my CNC machine.
    [![Watch the video](https://img.youtube.com/vi/Al5ihEPsQS4/0.jpg)](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Al5ihEPsQS4)
    ### Vibration Sensor
    A MEMS sensor has been installed on a CNC machine with *Fanuc controller* to measure vibrations for maintenance purposes. [PulseNG](https://www.montronix.com/en/products/functionality/interface/ibu-ng-en.html) is a permanently installed diagnostic tool. After the installation of the sensor, **it will be connected to the IBU-NG interface**, which is housing of the electronic board via cable that will later be connected to the PLC controller of the machine to work simultaneously.
    A MEMS sensor has been installed on a CNC machine with *Fanuc controller*
    to measure vibrations for maintenance purposes.
    [PulseNG](https://www.montronix.com/en/products/functionality/interface/ibu-ng-en.html)
    is a permanently installed diagnostic tool.
    After the installation of the sensor, **it will be connected to the IBU-NG interface**,
    which is housing of the electronic board via cable
    that will later be connected to the PLC controller of the machine to work simultaneously.
    - The piezo sensor [Maropass VA-3D](https://www.marposs.com/eng/product/vibration-sensors) measures the accelerations of up to three axes.
    - The piezo sensor [Maropass VA-3D](https://www.marposs.com/eng/product/vibration-sensors)
    measures the accelerations of up to three axes.
    ### RTDs (Resistance Temperature Detectors)
    Among different types of temparature sensors, RTDs detect temperature of the work-piece and cutting tools so as to realize thermal shielding in order to reduce thermal deformation.
    Among different types of temparature sensors,
    RTDs detect temperature of the work-piece and cutting tools
    so as to realize thermal shielding in order to reduce thermal deformation.
    ### Encoders
    Linear, rotary and angle encoders are used for feedback in CNC machine systems, communicating between the control and the respective motor. Each type of encoder monitors a different motion element of a machine depending on factors like the accuracy required and directional variety. The performance of a machine tool depends heavily on these different encoder instruments providing accurate, synchronized feedback readings.
    Linear, rotary and angle encoders are used for feedback in CNC machine systems,
    communicating between the control and the respective motor.
    Each type of encoder monitors a different motion element of a machine
    depending on factors like the accuracy required and directional variety.
    The performance of a machine tool depends heavily on these different encoder instruments
    providing accurate, synchronized feedback readings.
    ### Angle Encoder
    Angle encoders measure the rotational relationship between two parts with extreme precision, typically of an accuracy better than ±10" (arcseconds). These extreme levels of precision make angle encoders important in the development of multi-axis centers.
    - [HEIDENHAIN](https://www.heidenhain.us/resources-and-news/encoders-for-cnc-machining-applications/) offers angle encoders with accuracy down to ± .04" (arcseconds).
    Angle encoders measure the rotational relationship between two parts
    with extreme precision, typically of an accuracy better than ±10" (arcseconds).
    These extreme levels of precision make angle encoders important
    in the development of multi-axis centers.
    - [HEIDENHAIN](https://www.heidenhain.us/resources-and-news/encoders-for-cnc-machining-applications/)
    offers angle encoders with accuracy down to ± .04" (arcseconds).
    ### [Rotary Encoders](https://3dinsider.com/rotary-encoders/)
    While angle encoders excel at positioning, rotary encoders are often more suited for speed control. In the machine tool industry, this makes them ideal for monitoring spindle rotation per minute (RPM)
    While angle encoders excel at positioning,
    rotary encoders are often more suited for speed control.
    In the machine tool industry,
    this makes them ideal for monitoring spindle rotation per minute (RPM)
    - **Mechanical rotary encoders** are common mainly because they are so **cheap and easy** to implement. However, the necessity of metal components coming into contact with each other at **rapid speeds will inevitably result in mechanical wear**.
    - **Mechanical rotary encoders** are common,
    mainly because they are so **cheap and easy** to implement.
    However, the necessity of metal components coming into contact with each other
    at **rapid speeds will inevitably result in mechanical wear**.
    - **optical rotary encoders** is that they are highly versatile and customizable However, the components of optical rotary encoders are a bit **fragile**, making them **unsuitable for highly rugged applications**
    - **optical rotary encoders** is that they are highly versatile and customizable.
    However, the components of optical rotary encoders are a bit **fragile**,
    making them **unsuitable for highly rugged applications**
    - **Magnetic encoders** are exceptionally suitable for tracking the speed of rotating shafts and disks. However, they cannot be used to generate data for absolute positioning. This severely limits the use cases for a magnetic encoder.
    - **Magnetic encoders** are exceptionally suitable
    for tracking the speed of rotating shafts and disks.
    However, they cannot be used to generate data for absolute positioning.
    This severely limits the use cases for a magnetic encoder.
    All of these cases, a rotary encoder is typically more suitable as a means for speed control. Control of spindle rotation plays many critical roles, such as in optimizing the machining process with due consideration of energy consumption and tool wear.
    In all of these cases, a rotary encoder is typically more suitable
    as a means for speed control.
    Control of spindle rotation plays many critical roles,
    such as in optimizing the machining process
    with due consideration of energy consumption and tool wear.
    ## Limitations
    In CNC machine monitoring case study, variety of conditions such as good/bad, wear or no wear, trend of wear of machine components, ball screws, linear guides, spindle, bearing etc. dedicated to the tool crashes.
    In CNC machine monitoring case study, variety of conditions such as good/bad,
    wear or no wear, trend of wear of machine components, ball screws,
    linear guides, spindle, bearing etc. dedicated to the tool crashes.
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    ## Introduction
    Stepper motor drivers are specifically designed to drive stepper motors, which are capable of continuous rotation with precise position control, even without a feedback system. The usual stepper motor drivers offer adjustable current control and multiple step resolutions, and they feature built-in translators that allow a stepper motor to be controlled with simple step and direction inputs. These modules are generally basic carrier boards for a variety of stepper motor driver ICs that offer low-level interfaces like inputs for directly initiating each step.
    Stepper motor drivers are specifically designed to drive stepper motors,
    which are capable of continuous rotation with precise position control,
    even without a feedback system.
    The usual stepper motor drivers offer adjustable current control
    and multiple step resolutions,
    and they feature built-in translators
    that allow a stepper motor to be controlled with simple step and direction inputs.
    These modules are generally basic carrier boards
    for a variety of stepper motor driver ICs
    that offer low-level interfaces like inputs for directly initiating each step.
    ## Types of Stepper Drivers
    There are different types of stepper motor drivers. Here are the three main versions that you will come across-
    - **L/R Stepper Motor Driver** : This type of stepper motor driver carried out rotations at a low to medium speed and this can result in fairly limited ranges of power output. They can still offer a full rotation but they don’t usually offer control in regards to variable current levels.
    - **Chopper Stepper Motor Driver – Micro-step** : These types of stepper motor drivers are able to use a micro step mode. This means that it runs smoother and more efficiently as the current rate is regulated at all speeds. It works on a solitary supply of high voltage and has output transistors that have come on and off automatically.
    - **Bi-level Stepper Motor Driver**
    The third type of stepper motor driver is the bi-level and this can use both high and low-level voltages. It works by powering up to a high rate of current and when it reaches the level that you need, the high voltage is turned off. The low voltage is then used to maintain this level of supply when it is in use.
    There are different types of stepper motor drivers.
    Here are the three main versions that you will come across-
    - **L/R Stepper Motor Driver**:
    This type of stepper motor driver carried out rotations
    at a low to medium speed
    and this can result in fairly limited ranges of power output.
    They can still offer a full rotation
    but they don’t usually offer control in regards to variable current levels.
    - **Chopper Stepper Motor Driver – Micro-step**:
    These types of stepper motor drivers are able to use a micro step mode.
    This means that it runs smoother and more efficiently
    as the current rate is regulated at all speeds.
    It works on a solitary supply of high voltage
    and has output transistors that have come on and off automatically.
    - **Bi-level Stepper Motor Driver**:
    The third type of stepper motor driver is the bi-level
    and this can use both high and low-level voltages.
    It works by powering up to a high rate of current
    and when it reaches the level that you need, the high voltage is turned off.
    The low voltage is then used to maintain this level of supply when it is in use.
    ### Specifying stepper drives
    - select a stepper with at least twice as much torque as required at the target operating speed, and use a motor rated at about ¼ supply voltage.
    - select a stepper with at least twice as much torque
    as required at the target operating speed,
    and use a motor rated at about ¼ supply voltage.
    - The driver should output at least 1.4 times the motor's rated current. Choose a driver that has several step resolutions to test different microstepping settings to get the smoothest motion. Finally, make sure the driver can receive enough step pulses to rotate your motor at the desired speed. Sometimes drivers are limited to something small like 10 kHz. If you're hoping to microstep even at **8× with a 1.8° stepper**, your maximum revolutions per sec speed is **10,000/(8 × 200) = 6.25 rps**.
    - The driver should output at least 1.4 times the motor's rated current.
    Choose a driver that has several step resolutions
    to test different microstepping settings to get the smoothest motion.
    Finally, make sure the driver can receive enough step pulses
    to rotate your motor at the desired speed.
    Sometimes drivers are limited to something small like 10 kHz.
    If you're hoping to microstep even at **8× with a 1.8° stepper**,
    your maximum revolutions per sec speed is **10,000/(8 × 200) = 6.25 rps**.
    - To make a stepper motor run, we need to use possibly a A4988 or possibly a DRV8825 or possibly a Trinamic TMC2130 or similar categories.
    - To make a stepper motor run,
    we need to use possibly a A4988, a DRV8825 or possibly a Trinamic TMC2130
    or similar categories.
    ### Best CNC Stepper Motor Drivers for Every CNC Application:
    Here are the best Stepper Drivers available today [2021] for CNC applications:
    - **[SongHe DRV8825 Stepper Motor Driver](https://www.ti.com/lit/gpn/drv8825)** **(Recommended)** : This CNC motor controller can run a **1.5 A NEMA 17 motor** reasonably well and obviously any stepper motor that's smaller than that. While the A4988 can do up to 1/16 microstepping, the DRV8825 can do up to 1/32 microstepping, making the motor movement smoother. The Songhe DRV8825 ships with aluminium heat sinks included.
    Adjusting the current from the driver in DRV8825 is very similar to that of the A4988, by doing a potentiometer adjustment.
    - **[StepperOnline DM542T Stepper Motor Driver](https://www.omc-stepperonline.com/digital-stepper-driver-10-42a-20-50vdc-for-nema-17-23-24-stepper-motor-dm542t.html)** : This stepper driver can power almost any NEMA 17 and NEMA 23 motor, except probably the high torque NEMA 23 with 4.2A. the driver an excellent choice for almost any GRBL based DIY CNC project, including the large 8' x 4' frames. The heat sinking and cooling on this motor is excellent. It is a very silent driver and it doesn't sweat even when you hit 4A.
    ***One important difference between the G540 and the other steppers is that it is run on Mach3/4 and LinuxCNC instead of GRBL and operates via a parallel port to connect to the CNC controller***.
    - **[SongHe DRV8825 Stepper Motor Driver](https://www.ti.com/lit/gpn/drv8825)** **(Recommended)**:
    This CNC motor controller can run a **1.5 A NEMA 17 motor** reasonably well
    and obviously any stepper motor that's smaller than that.
    While the A4988 can do up to 1/16 microstepping,
    the DRV8825 can do up to 1/32 microstepping, making the motor movement smoother.
    The Songhe DRV8825 ships with aluminium heat sinks included.
    Adjusting the current from the driver in DRV8825
    is very similar to that of the A4988, by doing a potentiometer adjustment.
    - **[StepperOnline DM542T Stepper Motor Driver](https://www.omc-stepperonline.com/digital-stepper-driver-10-42a-20-50vdc-for-nema-17-23-24-stepper-motor-dm542t.html)**:
    This stepper driver can power almost any NEMA 17 and NEMA 23 motor,
    except probably the high torque NEMA 23 with 4.2A.
    The driver an excellent choice for almost any GRBL based DIY CNC project,
    including the large 8' x 4' frames.
    The heat sinking and cooling on this motor is excellent.
    It is a very silent driver and it doesn't sweat even when you hit 4A.
    ***One important difference between the G540 and the other steppers
    is that it is run on Mach3/4 and LinuxCNC instead of GRBL
    and operates via a parallel port to connect to the CNC controller***.
    ### Other Commercial Stepper Drivers
    one of these has the potentiality to suit our needs:
    - **[ULN2003 Driver Board](https://www.seeedstudio.com/blog/2019/03/04/driving-a-28byj-48-stepper-motor-with-a-uln2003-driver-board-and-arduino/)** : a great choice for someone looking for a driver that is less phase specific.
    - **[DevMo Stepper Motor Driver](https://www.xnwgbcdaa.com/index.php?main_page=product_info&products_id=379079)** : a great choice for anyone concerned about the heat levels produced from their 3D printer. The driver operates at 4.75 Volts and 28 DC. The Devo model runs at a temperature of 70 degrees.
    - **[Bolsen Stepper Driver](https://www.amazon.com/Bolsen-Reprap-Stepper-Aluminum-Printer/dp/B07G15Z31B)** : A Voltage of 35 with 2A output drive capacity, great choice for someone with a single-phase 3D printer.
    - **[ARCELI A4988 Compatible Stepper](https://www.amazon.de/-/en/Compatible-Stepper-StepStick-Heatsink-Controller/dp/B07MXXL2KW)** : the best model to use if you’re looking to make your machine faster in speed. It is compatible with multiple 3D printer voltages, ranging from 6V to 36V 2.5A.
    - **[SMAKN TB6600 Upgraded Version](https://wiki.dfrobot.com/TB6600_Stepper_Motor_Driver_SKU__DRI0043)** : A phase flow driver that is H-bridge bipolar constant. A maximum output current of 4.0A. The driver can be made to produce an output current of 8.0 A. The power supply chip version comes with a five-year warranty.
    - **SparkFun EasyDriver** : you’re looking for a driver with many adjustabilities but no real mechanism for heat control.
    - **Gikfun EasyDriver Shield Stepper Motor Driver for Arduino** : It is compatible with multiple stepper motors that come on a variety of voltage. Any four, six, and eight stepper motors should be able to use this driver. It is an A3967 micro-stepping driver
    - **[HobbyPower Stepstick 4-layer DRV8825](https://www.amazon.com/Hobbypower-StepStick-4-layer-DRV8825-Stepper/dp/B00NCSK6T2)** : the best choice for those looking for the **most micro-step resolutions** for their 3D printer. It is known for being well suited for those who like to build their 3D printers or have other do-it-yourself inclination.
    - **[DaFuRui 5-piece A4988 Stepstick Driver](https://www.amazon.com/Dafurui-Stepstick-Stepper-Aluminum-Robotics/dp/B07S22FTHP)** : A translator is built into the complete micro-stepping motor driver frame that allows for the stepper motor’s easy operation. A great option if you want a driver that’ll fit in more than just your 3D printer.
    - **[BIGTREETECH Direct TMC2209 UART driver](https://www.biqu.equipment/products/bigtreetech-tmc2209-stepper-motor-driver-for-3d-printer-board-vs-tmc2208)** : a high tech motor drive that comes with a lot of extra mechanisms and most expensive one.
    - **[Tongbay TMC2208 V3.0 Stepper Motor Driver](https://www.amazon.de/Bigtreetech-TMC2208-V3-0-Schrittmotortreiber-Step/dp/B08953XG91)** : A single UART wire that is used for advanced configurations. It is a more high tech motor with lots of extra advancements.
    - **[ULN2003 Driver Board](https://www.seeedstudio.com/blog/2019/03/04/driving-a-28byj-48-stepper-motor-with-a-uln2003-driver-board-and-arduino/)**:
    A great choice for someone looking for a driver that is less phase specific.
    - **[DevMo Stepper Motor Driver](https://www.xnwgbcdaa.com/index.php?main_page=product_info&products_id=379079)**:
    A great choice for anyone concerned about the heat levels
    produced from their 3D printer.
    The driver operates at 4.75 Volts and 28 DC.
    The Devo model runs at a temperature of 70 degrees.
    - **[Bolsen Stepper Driver](https://www.amazon.com/Bolsen-Reprap-Stepper-Aluminum-Printer/dp/B07G15Z31B)**:
    A Voltage of 35 with 2A output drive capacity,
    great choice for someone with a single-phase 3D printer.
    - **[ARCELI A4988 Compatible Stepper](https://www.amazon.de/-/en/Compatible-Stepper-StepStick-Heatsink-Controller/dp/B07MXXL2KW)**:
    The best model to use
    if you’re looking to make your machine faster in speed.
    It is compatible with multiple 3D printer voltages, ranging from 6V to 36V 2.5A.
    - **[SMAKN TB6600 Upgraded Version](https://wiki.dfrobot.com/TB6600_Stepper_Motor_Driver_SKU__DRI0043)**:
    A phase flow driver that is H-bridge bipolar constant.
    A maximum output current of 4.0A.
    The driver can be made to produce an output current of 8.0 A.
    The power supply chip version comes with a five-year warranty.
    - **SparkFun EasyDriver**:
    You’re looking for a driver with many adjustabilities
    but no real mechanism for heat control.
    - **Gikfun EasyDriver Shield Stepper Motor Driver for Arduino** :
    It is compatible with multiple stepper motors that come on a variety of voltage.
    Any four, six, and eight stepper motors should be able to use this driver.
    It is an A3967 micro-stepping driver
    - **[HobbyPower Stepstick 4-layer DRV8825](https://www.amazon.com/Hobbypower-StepStick-4-layer-DRV8825-Stepper/dp/B00NCSK6T2)**:
    The best choice for those looking for the **most micro-step resolutions**
    for their 3D printer.
    It is known for being well suited for those who like to build their 3D printers
    or have other do-it-yourself inclination.
    - **[DaFuRui 5-piece A4988 Stepstick Driver](https://www.amazon.com/Dafurui-Stepstick-Stepper-Aluminum-Robotics/dp/B07S22FTHP)**:
    A translator is built into the complete micro-stepping motor driver frame
    that allows for the stepper motor’s easy operation.
    A great option if you want a driver that’ll fit in more than just your 3D printer.
    - **[BIGTREETECH Direct TMC2209 UART driver](https://www.biqu.equipment/products/bigtreetech-tmc2209-stepper-motor-driver-for-3d-printer-board-vs-tmc2208)**:
    A high tech motor drive that comes with a lot of extra mechanisms,
    and is the most expensive one.
    - **[Tongbay TMC2208 V3.0 Stepper Motor Driver](https://www.amazon.de/Bigtreetech-TMC2208-V3-0-Schrittmotortreiber-Step/dp/B08953XG91)**:
    A single UART wire that is used for advanced configurations.
    It is a more high tech motor with lots of extra advancements.
    docs/electronics/Stepper_Drivers.md
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    # Stepper Motor Drivers
    ### What is a Stepper Motor Driver?
    ## What is a Stepper Motor Driver
    - A stepper driver is an electronic device which changes the current into the pulse.
    - It actually does nothing on its own, it needs to be used with a controller.
    - The basic function of a stepper driver is to drive the motor.
    ### Why a Stepper Motor Driver is needed?
    ## Why a Stepper Motor Driver is needed?
    - The voltage and the current required by the motor are not from the controller.
    - The stepper driver could transform the movement instructions into the sequences.
    - The sequences will be fed into the winding of unipolar step motor to make the motor run.
    - The sequences will be fed into the winding
    of unipolar step motor to make the motor run.
    ### Types of Stepper Motor Drivers
    ## Types of Stepper Motor Drivers
    ### 1. Digital Stepper Driver
    These drivers are implemented using the most modern technology. They are easy to use and can be used for driving 2-phase or 4-phase motors. Some digital stepper drivers can work with a voltage of 24 - 70 V DC, and their maximum current can reach up to 10 A. And a DIP switch can be used to set the required current and micro-steps resolution.
    These drivers are implemented using the most modern technology.
    They are easy to use and can be used for driving 2-phase or 4-phase motors.
    Some digital stepper drivers can work with a voltage of 24 - 70 V DC,
    and their maximum current can reach up to 10 A.
    And a DIP switch can be used to set the required current and micro-steps resolution.
    Some of the ímportant features of the digital stepper drivers are
    ......@@ -29,7 +34,8 @@ Some of the ímportant features of the digital stepper drivers are
    ### 2. Analog Stepper Driver
    These drivers may use THB7128 IC and can provide a micro-step resolution as much as 25,600 steps per rev.
    These drivers may use THB7128 IC and can provide a micro-step resolution
    as much as 25,600 steps per rev.
    Some of the ímportant features of the analog stepper drivers are:
    ......
    docs/electronics/Stepper_Motors_3D_Printers.md
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    ......@@ -2,64 +2,131 @@
    ## Bipolar Stepper Motor
    - A bipolar stepper motor has an onboard driver that uses an H bridge circuit to reverse the current flow through the phases. By energising the phases while alternating the polarity, all the coils can be put to work turning the motor.
    - In practical terms, this means that the coil windings are better utilised in a bipolar than a standard unipolar stepper motor (which only uses 50% of the wire coils at any one time), making bipolar stepper motors more powerful and efficient to run.
    - The trade-off is that they’re usually more expensive initially than standard unipolar versions, because unipolar stepper motors don’t require the current flow to be reversed in order to perform stepping functions - this makes their internal electronics much simpler and cheaper to produce.
    - A bipolar stepper motor has an onboard driver
    that uses an H bridge circuit to reverse the current flow through the phases.
    By energising the phases while alternating the polarity,
    all the coils can be put to work turning the motor.
    - In practical terms, this means that the coil windings
    are better utilised in a bipolar than a standard unipolar stepper motor
    (which only uses 50% of the wire coils at any one time),
    making bipolar stepper motors more powerful and efficient to run.
    - The trade-off is that they’re usually more expensive initially
    than standard unipolar versions,
    because unipolar stepper motors don’t require the current flow
    to be reversed in order to perform stepping functions -
    this makes their internal electronics much simpler and cheaper to produce.
    So, we must use the bipolar stepper motors.
    ## Rated Current
    - This is the maximum current we may pass through both windings at the same time. The maximum current through one winding (which is what really matters when using microstepping) is rarely quoted and will be a little higher. However, even with one winding driven at the quoted rated current, the motor will get very hot.
    - The usual practice is to set the motor current to no more than about 85% of the rated current. Therefore, to get maximum torque out of the stepper motors without overheating them, we should choose motors with a current rating no more than 25% higher than the recommended maximum stepper driver current.
    **MKS SBASE V1.3** uses the **DRV8825** stepper motor controller IC. The provides 2.5 A maximum drive current at 24 V. Considering half of the maximum drive current (1.25 A) at 12 V, to get maximum torque out of the motors without overheating them, we should choose motors with a current rating around 1.56 A (25% higher than 1.25 A).
    - This is the maximum current we may pass through both windings at the same time.
    The maximum current through one winding
    (which is what really matters when using microstepping)
    is rarely quoted and will be a little higher.
    However, even with one winding driven at the quoted rated current,
    the motor will get very hot.
    - The usual practice is to set the motor current
    to no more than about 85% of the rated current.
    Therefore, to get maximum torque out of the stepper motors
    without overheating them, we should choose motors
    with a current rating no more than 25% higher
    than the recommended maximum stepper driver current.
    **MKS SBASE V1.3** uses the **DRV8825** stepper motor controller IC.
    The provides 2.5 A maximum drive current at 24 V.
    Considering half of the maximum drive current (1.25 A) at 12 V,
    to get maximum torque out of the motors without overheating them,
    we should choose motors with a current rating around 1.56 A
    (25% higher than 1.25 A).
    ## Holding torque
    - This is the maximum torque that the motor can provide with both windings energised at full current before it starts jumping steps.The holding torque with one winding energised at the rated current is about ***1/sqrt(2)*** times that.
    - This is the maximum torque that the motor can provide
    with both windings energised at full current before it starts jumping steps.
    The holding torque with one winding energised at the rated current
    is about ***1/sqrt(2)*** times that.
    - The torque is proportional to current (except at very low currents), so for example if we set the drivers to 85% of the motor rated current, then the maximum torque will be ***85% * 0.707 = 60%*** of the specified holding torque.
    - The torque is proportional to current (except at very low currents),
    so for example if we set the drivers to 85% of the motor rated current,
    then the maximum torque will be ***85% * 0.707 = 60%***
    of the specified holding torque.
    - ***Rated current comparison***: 85% of 0.4 A rated current = 0.34 A, 85% of 1.8 A rated current = 1.53 A.
    - ***Holding torque comparison***: 60% of 40 Ncm = 24 Ncm, 60% of 50 Ncm = 30 Ncm.
    - ***Rated current comparison***:
    85% of 0.4 A rated current = 0.34 A, 85% of 1.8 A rated current = 1.53 A.
    - ***Holding torque comparison***:
    60% of 40 Ncm = 24 Ncm, 60% of 50 Ncm = 30 Ncm.
    So, choosing the motor having 1.8 A rated current and setting the drivers at 1.53 A, we can get maximum torque of 30 Ncm (60%) out of the motors without overheating them.
    So, choosing the motor having 1.8 A rated current
    and setting the drivers at 1.53 A,
    we can get maximum torque of 30 Ncm (60%) out of the motors
    without overheating them.
    ## Step angle
    - There are two common step angles: 0.9 and 1.8 degrees per full step, corresponding to 400 and 200 steps/revolution.
    - There are two common step angles:
    0.9 and 1.8 degrees per full step, corresponding to 400 and 200 steps/revolution.
    - 0.9 deg motors have slightly lower holding torque than similar 1.8 deg motors from the same manufacturer.
    - 0.9 deg motors have slightly lower holding torque
    than similar 1.8 deg motors from the same manufacturer.
    Most 3D printers use 1.8 deg/step motors.
    ## Resistance and rated voltage
    - These are simply the resistance per phase, and the voltage drop across each phase when the motor is stationary and the phase is passing its rated current (which is the product of the resistance and the rated current).
    - These are simply the resistance per phase,
    and the voltage drop across each phase when the motor is stationary
    and the phase is passing its rated current
    (which is the product of the resistance and the rated current).
    - These are unimportant, except that the rated voltage should be well below the power supply voltage to the stepper driver.
    - These are unimportant, except that the rated voltage
    should be well below the power supply voltage to the stepper driver.
    The 0.4 A stepper motor has the rated phase voltage of 12 V (phase resistance _30 ohms * rated current per phase_ 0.4 A). Providing 12 V supply voltage to the **DRV8825** stepper motor controller IC, we must use the 1.8 A rated current stepper motor. Because it has the rated phase voltage of 2.7 V (phase resistance _1.5 ohms * rated current per phase_ 1.8 A), which is much lower than the supply voltage (12 V) compared to the 0.4 A stepper motor.
    The 0.4 A stepper motor has the rated phase voltage of 12 V
    (phase resistance _30 ohms * rated current per phase_ 0.4 A).
    Providing 12 V supply voltage to the **DRV8825** stepper motor controller IC,
    we must use the 1.8 A rated current stepper motor.
    Because it has the rated phase voltage of 2.7 V
    (phase resistance _1.5 ohms * rated current per phase_ 1.8 A),
    which is much lower than the supply voltage (12 V)
    compared to the 0.4 A stepper motor.
    ## Inductance
    - The inductance of the motor affects how fast the stepper motor driver can drive the motor before the torque drops off. If we temporarily ignore the back emf due to rotation and the rated motor voltage is much less than the driver supply voltage, then the maximum revs/second before torque drops off is:
    - The inductance of the motor affects
    how fast the stepper motor driver can drive the motor
    before the torque drops off.
    If we temporarily ignore the back emf due to rotation
    and the rated motor voltage is much less than the driver supply voltage,
    then the maximum revs/second before torque drops off is:
    ***revs_per_second = (2 * supply_voltage)/(steps_per_rev * pi * inductance * current)***
    $$revs_per_second = (2 * supply_voltage)/(steps_per_rev * pi * inductance * current)$$
    - If the motor is driving a GT2 belt via a pulley, this gives the maximum speed in mm/sec as:
    - If the motor is driving a GT2 belt via a pulley,
    this gives the maximum speed in mm/sec as:
    ***speed = (4 * pulley_teeth * supply_voltage)/(steps_per_rev * pi * inductance * current)***
    $$speed = (4 * pulley_teeth * supply_voltage) /
    (steps_per_rev * pi * inductance * current)$$
    - **Example**: a 1.8 deg/step (i.e. 200 steps/rev) motor with 3.2 mH inductance run at 1.5 A using a 12 V supply, and driving a GT2 belt with 20 tooth pulley would start losing torque at about 318 mm/sec. This is the belt speed, which on a CoreXY or delta printer is not the same as the head speed.
    - **Example**: a 1.8 deg/step (i.e. 200 steps/rev) motor
    with 3.2 mH inductance run at 1.5 A using a 12 V supply,
    and driving a GT2 belt with 20 tooth pulley
    would start losing torque at about 318 mm/sec.
    This is the belt speed, which on a CoreXY or delta printer
    is not the same as the head speed.
    - In practice the torque will drop off sooner than this because of the back emf caused by motion, and because the above doesn't allow for the winding resistance. Low inductance motors also have low back emf due to rotation.
    - In practice the torque will drop off sooner
    than this because of the back emf caused by motion,
    and because the above doesn't allow for the winding resistance.
    Low inductance motors also have low back emf due to rotation.
    What this means is that if we want to achieve high speeds, we need low inductance motors and high supply voltage. So, we must choose the 1.8 A stepper motor having lower inductance (3.2 mH) compared to the 0.4 A stepper motor (58 mH).
    What this means is that if we want to achieve high speeds,
    we need low inductance motors and high supply voltage.
    So, we must choose the 1.8 A stepper motor
    having lower inductance (3.2 mH) compared to the 0.4 A stepper motor (58 mH).
    ## General Recommendations
    ......@@ -67,11 +134,16 @@ What this means is that if we want to achieve high speeds, we need low inductanc
    - Plan to run each stepper motor at between 50% and 85% of its rated current.
    - Nema 17 is the most popular size used in 3D printers. Nema 14 is an alternative in a highly-geared extruder. Use Nema 23 motors if you cannot get sufficient torque from long Nema 17 motors.
    - Nema 17 is the most popular size used in 3D printers.
    Nema 14 is an alternative in a highly-geared extruder.
    Use Nema 23 motors if you cannot get sufficient torque from long Nema 17 motors.
    - Avoid motors with rated voltage (or product of rated current and phase resistance) > 4 V or inductance > 4 mH.
    - Avoid motors with rated voltage (or product of rated current and phase resistance)
    > 4 V or inductance > 4 mH.
    - Choose 0.9 deg/step motors where you want extra positioning accuracy, e.g. for the tower motors of a delta printer. Otherwise choose 1.8 deg/step motors.
    - Choose 0.9 deg/step motors where you want extra positioning accuracy,
    e.g. for the tower motors of a delta printer. Otherwise choose 1.8 deg/step motors.
    - If you use any 0.9 deg/step motors, or high torque motors, use 24V power so that you will be able to maintain torque at higher speeds.
    - If you use any 0.9 deg/step motors, or high torque motors,
    use 24V power so that you will be able to maintain torque at higher speeds.
    docs/framing/Farming_Robot_Discussion.md
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    #Farm Robot
    # Farm Robot
    ## Requirements
    ......@@ -9,49 +8,47 @@
    - Easy to use
    - Easy to repair
    ## Open questions
    - Do we want something for small/medium scale or large scale?
    - To be used inside the city? Or at farms?
    - For Interior or exterior or both
    - Which areas of farming do we want to automate?
    - Planting
    - Monitoring
    - Irrigating
    - Pest control
    - Pruning
    - Weeding
    - Harvesting
    - Planting
    - Monitoring
    - Irrigating
    - Pest control
    - Pruning
    - Weeding
    - Harvesting
    ## Considerations
    - “According to FAO (2019b), about 90 percent of farmers worldwide operate on a small
    scale and the technology must become accessible to this large group.“
    __FAO Agriculture 4.0*__
    - “These new platforms tend to be very sophisticated and new types of equipment are
    continuously being developed; however, simple agrobots designed for basic,
    straightforward tasks can already help farmers with a wide range of operations.“
    __FAO Agriculture 4.0*__
    - "According to FAO (2019b),
    about 90 percent of farmers worldwide operate on a small scale
    and the technology must become accessible to this large group."
    __FAO Agriculture 4.0\*__
    - “Small robots at an affordable price for purchase or hire represent a potential
    alternative in areas where manpower is scarce and conventional machinery is not
    available or is too costly for smallholders.”
    __FAO Agriculture 4.0*__
    - "These new platforms tend to be very sophisticated
    and new types of equipment are continuously being developed;
    however, simple agrobots designed for basic, straightforward tasks
    can already help farmers with a wide range of operations."
    __FAO Agriculture 4.0\*__
    - “Agrobots can be designed to enable spare parts to be obtained via 3D printing,
    enabling decentralized production and facilitating the related logistic.”
    __FAO Agriculture 4.0*__
    - "Small robots at an affordable price for purchase or hire
    represent a potential alternative in areas where manpower is scarce
    and conventional machinery is not available or is too costly for smallholders."
    __FAO Agriculture 4.0\*__
    - Harvesting is one of the most labor intensive agricultural activities but also
    one of the most difficult to automate.
    - "Agrobots can be designed to enable spare parts to be obtained via 3D printing,
    enabling decentralized production and facilitating the related logistic."
    __FAO Agriculture 4.0\*__
    - Harvesting is one of the most labor intensive agricultural activities
    but also one of the most difficult to automate.
    \* <http://www.fao.org/policy-support/tools-and-publications/resources-details/en/c/1365039/>
    ## Key words
    - Precision Agriculture
    ......@@ -63,8 +60,6 @@ one of the most difficult to automate.
    - Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
    - Produce more with less (resources)
    ## Inspirations
    ### Robot car for open-field operations
    ......@@ -74,53 +69,54 @@ Probably one of the most popular systems in the market today.
    Examples:
    - _IP-Farmrobot_
    Open Source?
    Link: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tQk7wucq3jM>
    Open Source?
    <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tQk7wucq3jM>
    - _FarmDroid_
    Non-Open Source
    Link: <https://farmdroid.dk/en/welcome/>
    Non-Open Source
    <https://farmdroid.dk/en/welcome/>
    Pros:
    - Open field -> Not limited to small constrained areas
    - Horizontally scalable (more robots, more production)
    Cons:
    - Complex: Autonomous driving, uneven ground, changing ground
    - Batteries: Pollution, limited lifetime
    - Not much open documentation -> Lots of self development/research needs to be done
    ### Robot swarm
    Examples:
    - _Prospero: Robotic Farmer_
    Similar to the Robot Cars, but on legs instead of wheels.
    Open Source?
    Link: <https://wiki.opensourceecology.org/wiki/Prospero:_Robotic_Farmer>
    Similar to the Robot Cars, but on legs instead of wheels.
    Open Source?
    <https://wiki.opensourceecology.org/wiki/Prospero:_Robotic_Farmer>
    Pros:
    - "Horizontally" scalable
    - Swarm behaviour “smart” (also possible for robot cars)
    - Swarm behaviour "smart" (also possible for robot cars)
    Cons:
    - Complex
    - Batteries
    - Irrigation and harvesting are more complicated
    ### CNC Robot for planting bed
    Examples:
    - _FarmBot_
    Open Source project
    Link: <https://farm.bot/pages/open-source>
    Open Source project
    <https://farm.bot/pages/open-source>
    Pros:
    - More controlled conditions
    - Easier to automate extra steps like harvesting
    - No batteries needed if there’s access to an electric outlet
    ......@@ -131,21 +127,25 @@ Pros:
    - All year farming if in controlled interior
    Cons:
    - Limited work area (How difficult would it be to modify it to be “infinite” bed length?)
    - Not very scalable beyond production for family needs
    - Expensive for vegetable yield (maybe it is too “hight quality” for the purpose?) -> Maybe a “downgraded” version that is less precise but way cheaper could be an option.
    - Limited work area
    (How difficult would it be to modify it to be "infinite" bed length?)
    - Not very scalable beyond production for family needs
    - Expensive for vegetable yield
    (maybe it is too "hight quality" for the purpose?)
    -> Maybe a "downgraded" version that is less precise but way cheaper
    could be an option.
    ### Circular farming robot
    Examples:
    - _Agrokruh_
    Kind of Open Source but no much documentation available.
    Link: <https://wiki.opensourceecology.org/wiki/Agrokruh>
    Kind of Open Source but no much documentation available.
    <https://wiki.opensourceecology.org/wiki/Agrokruh>
    Pros:
    - Scalable
    - "Horizontally" with more units
    - "Vertically" if implemented the idea of moving arm through the circles.
    ......@@ -153,31 +153,34 @@ Pros:
    - Similar to FarmBot but for larger scales
    Cons:
    - Only makes sense at larger scales (Not sure if a con)
    - Outside the city -> Transportation of products
    - More dependent on climate conditions (No winter farming)
    ## Ideas
    - Something similar to FarmBot but vertical?
    - With soil to plant tubers or other “big” vegetables/fruits
    - With soil to plant tubers or other "big" vegetables/fruits
    - Or hydroponic for greens/strawberries/Bell peppers/herbs
    - Maybe lower levels can be used to plant vegetables that hang to the ground (Like FarmBot suggests at the ends of the bed)
    - For open-filed operations there is the concept of RTK-GPS which is high precision GPS positioning (1cm).
    Tutorial: https://learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/what-is-gps-rtk/allThis company uses that technic https://farmdroid.dk/en/welcome/
    - Maybe lower levels can be used to plant vegetables that hang to the ground
    (Like FarmBot suggests at the ends of the bed)
    - For open-filed operations there is the concept of RTK-GPS
    which is high precision GPS positioning (1cm). \
    Tutorial: <https://learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/what-is-gps-rtk/all>
    This company uses that technique: <https://farmdroid.dk/en/welcome/>
    ## Comments
    In case of going for large scale farming:
    Probably we should not try to solve the agricultural problems we think are important.
    Although we can do our research on the main activities to automate it will always be
    important to talk to the end-user/consumer of these new technologies so we can design
    the correct solution for their problems.
    Talking, understanding and engaging with the farmers and their needs is crucial for
    the adoption of new technologies, specially in the agricultural sector that has not
    seen much change for generations.
    Although we can do our research on the main activities,
    to automate it, it will always be important to talk to the end-user/consumer
    of these new technologies,
    so we can design the correct solution for their problems.
    Talking, understanding and engaging with the farmers and their needs
    is crucial for the adoption of new technologies,
    specially in the agricultural sector,
    which has not seen much change for generations.
    docs/machines/3DScanner.md
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    ......@@ -2,29 +2,44 @@
    ## Commercial 3D Scanner Options
    1. [Shining 3D Einscan SE](https://www.amazon.de/gp/product/B07111K9NM/ref=as_li_qf_asin_il_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=gouza3dworld-21&creative=6742&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=B07111K9NM&linkId=f5ef062743278471949724d4ff8ae53e) is a 3D scanner (colour scanner) with white light technology - resolution 0.1 mm - smallest scan area 30 x 30 x 30 mm - largest scan area 200 x 200 mm (turntable scan) and 700 x 700 x 700 mm (free scan/tripod). It has a rotating turntable with a fixed scanner and costs 1053 Euros.
    ![Shining 3D pic](https://images-na.ssl-images-amazon.com/images/I/71usf%2BnNSXL._SL1500_.jpg)
    1. [Shining 3D Einscan SE](https://www.amazon.de/gp/product/B07111K9NM/ref=as_li_qf_asin_il_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=gouza3dworld-21&creative=6742&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=B07111K9NM&linkId=f5ef062743278471949724d4ff8ae53e)
    is a 3D scanner (colour scanner) with white light technology
    - resolution 0.1 mm
    - smallest scan area 30 x 30 x 30 mm
    - largest scan area 200 x 200 mm (turntable scan) and
    - 700 x 700 x 700 mm (free scan/tripod).
    2. [Revopoint 3D Scanner](https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/2125914059/revopoint-pop-high-precision-3d-scanner-for-3d-printing?fbclid=IwAR0JoQ9EG02awxJ5Er74mv3IOJLHvaMxr62QGr6IcqKBQXYcHD3_zsPeO6c) is a small and compact 3D scanner developed on Kickstarter and costs about 250 Euros.
    It has a rotating turntable with a fixed scanner and costs 1053 Euros.
    ![Shining 3D pic](https://images-na.ssl-images-amazon.com/images/I/71usf%2BnNSXL._SL1500_.jpg)
    2. [Revopoint 3D Scanner](https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/2125914059/revopoint-pop-high-precision-3d-scanner-for-3d-printing?fbclid=IwAR0JoQ9EG02awxJ5Er74mv3IOJLHvaMxr62QGr6IcqKBQXYcHD3_zsPeO6c)
    is a small and compact 3D scanner developed on Kickstarter
    and costs about 250 Euros.
    ## Open Source 3D Scanner Options
    1. OpenScan EU – German maker – kit costs 50Euros
    - Youtube Page with build and use instructions:- https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCG3IgwSIFFlc77Luf9VVlYw^
    - Main Website: https://en.openscan.eu/openscan
    - BOM, CAD and build Instructions available
    1. OpenScan EU – German maker – kit costs 50Euros
    - Youtube Page with build and use instructions:
    <https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCG3IgwSIFFlc77Luf9VVlYw^>
    - Main Website:
    <https://en.openscan.eu/openscan>
    - BOM, CAD and build Instructions available
    2. [FabScan](https://hci.rwth-aachen.de/fabscan) from Fablab Aachen.
    - Detailed instructable to build a [FabScan](https://www.instructables.com/3D-Scanner-FabScan-Pi/)
    ![FabScan](https://hci.rwth-aachen.de/files/migrated/images/FabScanPiFreigestellt.jpg)
    3. 3D Scanner Turntable from youtuber Eric Strebel
    using Agisoft Metashape (commercial Software)
    - [Youtube Video](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=28vrZIj-hYQ)
    4. DIY solution with phone camera and Open source software Meshroom and Meshlab.
    3. 3D Scanner Turntable from youtuber Eric Strebel using Agisoft Metashape (commercial Software)
    - [Youtube Video](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=28vrZIj-hYQ)
    - Youtuber [Crosslink](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=45D0pFdqVgw)
    4. DIY solution with phone camera and Open source software Meshroom and Meshlab.
    - Youtuber [Crosslink](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=45D0pFdqVgw)
    docs/machines/DesktopLaserCutter.md
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    # Desktop Laser Cutter
    1. [LaserDUO](http://laserduo.com/)
    ![LaserDUO](http://laserduo.com/media/gal1.jpg)
    ![LaserDUO](http://laserduo.com/media/gal1.jpg)
    2. [Fabulaser](http://fabulaser.net/)
    ![Fabulaser](https://lirp.cdn-website.com/2b5ccdcd/dms3rep/multi/opt/FabulaserKit_2-1dc4b157-960w.jpg)
    ![Fabulaser](https://lirp.cdn-website.com/2b5ccdcd/dms3rep/multi/opt/FabulaserKit_2-1dc4b157-960w.jpg)
    3. [Lasersaur](https://www.lasersaur.com/)
    [DIY Laser Cutter Fume Extractor](https://www.instructables.com/Build-a-laser-cutter-fume-extractor/)
    docs/machines/Pick_&_Place_Machine.md
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    ## Open Source Machines
    1. The **Index** pick and place Machine from Stephen Hawes for assembling circuit boards automatically
    - [Github](https://github.com/sphawes/index) repository with Freecad files as well
    1. The **Index** pick and place Machine from Stephen Hawes
    for assembling circuit boards automatically
    - [Github](https://github.com/sphawes/index)
    repository with Freecad files as well
    - [BOM](https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1N7jMZ2upi8-9_jjJnl2xC9bYtZuE1wX5Qzoa-qs21eY/edit#gid=476120456)
    - [Youtube video](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GtZcnIEi710)
    docs/machines/SLS_Printer.md
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    ## Commercial Machines
    [Sintratec KIT](https://sintratec.com/product/sintratec-kit/)
    ![Sintratec](https://staticcontent.sintratec.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/07131621/sintratec-kit-3d-printer-frontview.png)
    docs/mechanics/Ball_Screws.md
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    ......@@ -2,9 +2,18 @@
    **Note on Ballscrews from user CMM on stackexchange:**
    - At the limits of the machine, precision is limited by the achievable positioning accuracy of the motors and the mechanical reflection of that precision into a linear position.
    - With a belt drive, the mechanical precision for a stepper-motor system is the circumference of the drive pulley divided by the number of distinct step positions. A 1.5 degree stepper with 10::1 microstepping (assuming everything works perfectly) with a 1 cm pulley gives a maximum precision of 0.013 mm. The same stepper motor with a 5 turns/in ball screw has a maximum precision of 0.0021 mm i.e. the precision is better.
    - At the limits of the machine,
    precision is limited by the achievable positioning accuracy of the motors
    and the mechanical reflection of that precision into a linear position.
    - With a belt drive, the mechanical precision for a stepper-motor system
    is the circumference of the drive pulley
    divided by the number of distinct step positions.
    A 1.5 degree stepper with 10::1 microstepping
    (assuming everything works perfectly)
    with a 1 cm pulley gives a maximum precision of 0.013 mm.
    The same stepper motor with a 5 turns/in ball screw
    has a maximum precision of 0.0021 mm i.e. the precision is better.
    Other advantages may include:
    ......@@ -18,11 +27,19 @@ There are several disadvantages.
    - The rotating mass is increased.
    - Rotating ball screws have a maximum rotation rate depending on how the ends are supported. This limits the maximum movement speed.
    - Rotating ball screws have a maximum rotation rate
    depending on how the ends are supported. This limits the maximum movement speed.
    - The most economical ball screw size (at McMaster-Carr) is the 5/8"-5 ball screw with appropriate ball nuts. This is fairly high mass. It is also stiffer than thinner ball screws, and will have a higher maximum spin rate for a given support system.
    - The most economical ball screw size (at McMaster-Carr)
    is the 5/8"-5 ball screw with appropriate ball nuts.
    This is fairly high mass.
    It is also stiffer than thinner ball screws,
    and will have a higher maximum spin rate for a given support system.
    - For a particular linear speed, the motors must spin faster. Unless a more complicated, variable micro-stepping drive method is used, the I/O load on the drive firmware will be higher -- about 5 times higher in this example.
    - For a particular linear speed, the motors must spin faster.
    Unless a more complicated, variable micro-stepping drive method is used,
    the I/O load on the drive firmware will be higher --
    about 5 times higher in this example.
    - Other advantages of ball screws are less relevant in a 3D printer application.
    ......@@ -32,10 +49,22 @@ There are several disadvantages.
    - Ball screws work well with human-controlled knobs and hand-wheels
    - If this is a larger bed size than a typical printer, you will probably be printing larger objects. To keep the printing time reasonable, you may want to print faster, which means higher acceleration and higher extrusion rates.
    For your particular application, you need to evaluate the tradeoffs. Either could be your answer. If the analysis is too complex, you could default to belt drive. You could put the money you would have spent on ball screws, ball nuts, and extra bearings into wider belts, higher torque motors with smaller step angles, and better (higher voltage, faster switching) motor drives.
    - There are two types of ball screws- rolled and ground. The cheap chinese ones are the rolled ones and specs won't be as good as the ground screws.
    [Information](https://www.machinedesign.com/mechanical-motion-systems/linear-motion/article/21828146/the-importance-of-ballscrew-end-fixity) on fixing methods of ball screw ends and their importance
    \ No newline at end of file
    - If this is a larger bed size than a typical printer,
    you will probably be printing larger objects.
    To keep the printing time reasonable, you may want to print faster,
    which means higher acceleration and higher extrusion rates.
    For your particular application, you need to evaluate the tradeoffs.
    Either could be your answer.
    If the analysis is too complex, you could default to belt drive.
    You could put the money you would have spent on ball screws,
    ball nuts, and extra bearings into wider belts,
    higher torque motors with smaller step angles,
    and better (higher voltage, faster switching) motor drives.
    - There are two types of ball screws- rolled and ground.
    The cheap chinese ones are the rolled ones
    and specs won't be as good as the ground screws.
    [Information](https://www.machinedesign.com/mechanical-motion-systems/linear-motion/article/21828146/the-importance-of-ballscrew-end-fixity)
    on fixing methods of ball screw ends and their importance
    docs/mechanics/Lead_Screws.md
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    # Home
    [Information](https://www.designworldonline.com/how-to-correctly-apply-lead-screws/) on choosing Lead Screws
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    [Information](https://www.designworldonline.com/how-to-correctly-apply-lead-screws/)
    on choosing Lead Screws
    docs/mechanics/Linear_Motion.md
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    # Home
    [Build Your CNC](https://www.buildyourcnc.com/CNCMachineMechanicalParts.aspx) website has much information of the various components required for creating linear motion in CNC machines along with their properties and costs.
    \ No newline at end of file
    [Build Your CNC](https://www.buildyourcnc.com/CNCMachineMechanicalParts.aspx)
    website has much information of the various components required
    for creating linear motion in CNC machines along with their properties and costs.
    docs/mechanics/Linear_rails.md
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    # Home
    [Comparing](https://www.designworldonline.com/how-do-miniature-profiled-rail-guides-compare-to-their-full-size-counterparts/) miniature linear rails (15mm) with standard sized linear rails
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    [Comparing](https://www.designworldonline.com/how-do-miniature-profiled-rail-guides-compare-to-their-full-size-counterparts/)
    miniature linear rails (15mm) with standard sized linear rails
    docs/mechanics/Threaded_Rods.md
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    # Home
    1. Lead screws
    2. Acme Screws
    3. Ball Screws
    4.
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